Ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis): Anorexia; hemorrhagic eyes and fin bases; congestion of the back of the head; gill and lower jaw erosion (Kanazawa, 1991).
Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum): Reduced growth, increased mortality, lordosis, twisted cartilage of gill filaments, extreme dislocation of vertebrae, vertebral lesions including focal hemorrhage, compressed spinal cord, detached isthmus (MacConnell and Barrows, 1993).
Red sea bream (Pagrus major): Reduced growth (Yone, 1975).
Gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus): Anorexia, scale loss, depigmentation, internal and external hemorrhages, increase mortalities, extensive tubular damage, glomerulonephritis, and inflammatory response of the hemopoetic tissue-producing granuloma (Alexis et al., 1997).
Eel (Anguilla japonica): Reduced growth, fin and head erosion, lower jaw erosion (Arai et al., 1972).
Turbot (Psetta maxima): Reduced growth, renal granuloma, mortality (Coustans et al., 1990; Gouillou-Coustans and Guillaume, 1993).
Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa): Reduced growth and survival (Rosenlund et al., 1990).
Yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata): Anorexia, reduced growth, scoliosis, dark coloration, hemorrhage on body surface, hypochromic anemia (Sakaguchi et al., 1969; Shimeno, 1991).
Barramundi (Lates calcarifer): Reduced growth, dark coloration, loss of equilibrium, caudal fin erosion, hemorrhagic gills, short operculum, short snout, exophthalmia, short body, fragile gill filaments, gill hyperplasia, detached isthmus, scoliosis, lordosis, broken back, muscle degeneration, skin hemorrhage (Boonyaratpalin et al., 1989; Boonyaratpalin, 1994; Phromkunthong, et al., 1997).
Spotted snakehead (Channa punctata): Scoliosis, lordosis, anemia, distorted gill filaments (Mahajan and Agrawal, 1979).
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus): Reduced growth, scoliosis, lordosis, increased disease susceptibility, broken back syndrome, internal and external hemorrhage, fin erosion, dark skin color, anorexia, erratic swimming behavior (Lovell, 1973; Wilson and Poe, 1973; Andrews and Murai, 1975; Lim and Lovell, 1978; Lovell and Lim, 1978; Li and Lovell, 1985; Miyazaki et al., 1985; Mazik et al., 1987; Lovell and El Naggar, 1989; Wilson et al., 1989; Robinson, 1992).
Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus): Scoliosis, external hemorrhage, fin erosion, dark skin coloration (Butthep et al., 1985).
African catfish (Clarias gariepinus): Anorexia; poor growth; hemorrhage around edges of dorsal fin, operculum and snout region; high mortality; broken skull syndrome (Eya, 1996).
Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus): Reduced growth, lordosis, scoliosis, loss of equilibrium (Aguirre and Gatlin, 1999).
Hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops female x M. saxatilis male): Reduced growth, abnormal isthmus cartilage formation (Sealey and Gatlin, 1999).
Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus; O. aureus): Scoliosis, lordosis, reduced growth and wound repair, internal/external skin hemorrhage, caudal fin erosion, exophthalmia, anemia, reduced egg hatchability, erratic and convulsive swimming, lethargy, shortening and thickening of gill lamellae (Stickney et al., 1984; Soliman et al., 1986a, 1994).
Tilapia hybrid (Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus): anorexia, poor feed efficiency, dark skin coloration, hemorrhage around fins (Shiau and Jan, 1992b; Shiau and Hsu, 1995a).
Mexican mojarra (Cichlasoma urophthalmus): Reduced growth; high mortality; dark coloration; short operculae; hemorrhagic eyes, head and fins; erosion of the skin and fins; loss of scale; exophthalmia; swollen abdomen; scoliosis; lordosis; iritis; changes in head bones; gill hyperplasia (Ch·vez de MartÌnez, 1990; Ch·vez de MartÌnez and Richards, 1991).
Tiger puffer (Takifugu rubripes): Anorexia, hyperirritability, reduced growth (Kato et al., 1994).
Japanese parrot fish (Oplegnthus faciatus): Anorexia, ascites, flexing of vertebra, lethargy, abnormal swimming, high mortality, reduced growth (Ikeda et al., 1988; Ishibashi et al., 1992a).
Korean rockfish (Sebastes schlegeli): Anorexia, reduced growth, scoliosis, exophthalmia, fin hemorrhage (Lee et al., 1998).
Oscar (Astronotus ocellatus): Deformed opercula and jaws, hemorrhage in the eyes and fins, lordosis, deformed gill filament, reduced vertebral collagen (Fracalossi et al., 1998).
Freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii): Reduced survival, reduced growth, impaired ecdysis, cuticular lesions (DíAbramo et al., 1994).
Penaeid shrimp: Black death syndrome (blackening of exoskeleton; melanized hemolytic lesions); reduced wound repair, feed efficiency, growth and survival; incomplete moulting; lethargy, (Guary et al., 1976; Lightner et al., 1979; Shigueno and Itoh, 1988; Catacutan and de la Cruz, 1989; He and Lawrence, 1993a; Chen and Chang, 1994; Shiau and Hsu, 1994; Montoya and Molina, 1995).
Other etiologies have been associated with spinal deformities in fishes, including nutritional deficiencies of vitamin E and tryptophan. Hypervitaminosis A may cause spinal deformations (Hilton et al., 1978a). There are several possible causes for malformations in fish, including hereditary factors (McKay and Gjerde, 1986), damage during embryonic development, injuries, disease (Madsen and Dalsgaard, 1999), and damage due to environmental factors, such as stray electricity, lightning strikes (Rodger, 1991). Exposure of fish to toxicants (Mayer et al., 1978) and prolonged antibiotic treatment (Toften and Jobling, 1996) have also been reported to result in spinal deformations.
